The moral diversity argument for nonobjectivism Essay

The moral diversity argument for nonobjectivism - Essay Example Different cultures and religions look at moral principles differently, based on their culture’s understanding of them. With this, it can be assumed that moral diversity is the differences in interpretation of morality. It does not mean though that these diverse principles would always be in contrast with each other. Some may actually be in support with each other. A particular moral diversity argument is the argument for non-objectivism, wherein non-objectivists claim that moral claims are relative and dependent on the beliefs of an individual or group. This is in contrast to a moral objectivist’s point of view wherein the truth and morality is independent of anyone’s judgment. Non-objectivism emphasizes the diversity between the belief systems of different cultures. Non-objectivism views moral diversity as real and possible since individuals and groups view moral principles and objectives differently. One truth can be the others false, depending on what culture is talking about it. Non-objectivism is concerned about particular views and dispositions of individuals rather than an absolute truth. It sees truth and morals as relative and subjective. Thus, moral diversity is in sync with the principles of non-objectivism. In contrast, objectivism views truth as absolute. There is only one truth, much like one teaching, similar as how Christianity’s Jesus teaches, that there is only One God. Moral objectivists see moral principles as independent of an individual or group’s interpretation of it. The truth and moral principles are right or wrong regardless of the belief of the person.

Reintroduce death penalty Essay Example for Free

Reintroduce death penalty Essay Death penalty is a legal process through which, as a punishment a person is sentenced to death for a criminal offense by the state. Criminal offenses punishable through death penalty are referred to as capital offenses or capital crimes. The death penalty proponents, pro-capital punishment argues that it is an important aspect for deterring crimes, preserving law and order, and is less expensive compared to life imprisonment. They also claim that it is in the honor of the victim to award the death penalty. This is because it ensures the offenders of the heinous offenses do not get another chance to commit such crime again. In addition, the death penalty consoles the victims grieving families. Those opposed to death penalty, abolitionists argue that there is no deterrent effect on crimes, and government wrongly uses it as power to take life. They claim that it is the death penalty is a means to bring about social injustices through targeting people who cannot afford good attorneys, and people of color disproportionately. They argue that life imprisonment is less expensive and more severe than the death penalty. With all these arguments, we are left to decide on what course to take, assess the pros and cons of capital punishment and decide to support or oppose it. Questions relating to who deserves the death penalty and who does not have been raised by both the advocates of death penalty and those opposed to the death penalty (Zimring 91-93). Should death penalty be introduced? This is the argument of this paper. Capital punishment, in many countries, cultures and societies, throughout the human history has been applied in the justice system; the question that arises is that is it morally acceptable? Is it justified? Both the advocates for death penalty and the opponents of death penalty have valid arguments to back up their reasons. Those for the death penalty argue that the act of capital punishment is a deterrent to crime. However, those against argue that the death penalty is only a life imprisonment and not a deterrent to crime. It is however evident that the deterrence from the perspec tive of capital punishment is about the murderer’s mind involving the existing psychological processes (Haag 70-71). Not everybody deserves the death penalty. However, some people earn capital punishment. A person who breaks into a grocery store and steals bread definitely does not deserve the death penalty. In addition, people who commit murder for self-defense or during moment of  passion. Such people according to me do not deserve death. On the other hand, a serial killer after the lives of innocent people for fun and personal gains deserves capital punishment. I support the proponents of capital punishment. This stance is informed by a number of facts and reasons. Death penalty is a deterrent to crime. Even though the death penalty is irreversible, convicted persons are often given numerous chances to prove their innocence. Capital punishment assures societal safety through elimination of criminals. A life for a life is a sensible and credible assertion. Deterrence is punishing someone to create fear among people for punishment. Capital punishment is a punishment creates fear, especially in the minds of sane persons. Haag (2003) in his article On Deterrence and Death Penalty, people refrain from dangerous and harmful acts because of inchoate, vague, habitual, and most importantly preconscious fear (Haag 72). Everyone fears death, and most criminals would have a second thought if they were aware their own lives would be on the line. There are not so many justifications and evidence of death penalty to effectively deter crime than the usual long term imprisonment. The countries or states with the capital punishment has no lower rates of crime or rates of murder than those countries and states without those laws. On the other hand, the states or countries that campaign against capital punishment have not shown any significant deviation in the rates of murder or crime. The indicates that capital punishment has no defined deterrent impact. Claims that the executions dissuade particular number of murders have been discredited thoroughly by the researches of social sciences. In fact people do commit murder widely in the heat of passion basically under drug or alcohol influence, or because of mental illness, without thinking about the implications of the act. Those murderers who make plans of their murder crimes expect and intend to escape punishment by avoiding getting caught (Haag 70-73). On the other hand, some social research has found that execution has a significant deterrence to incidents of murder. In addition, the implementation of the capital punishment is related to the increased murder incidences, while those against the death penalty argue that the capital punishment is used unfairly against the African Americans, every extra execution prevents murder of 1.5 African Americans. In moratoria, death row, and commuted sentences removals tend to increase murder  incidences. Americans have emerged to support the capital punishment for reasons such as; the existence of minimal justification that suggest unfair treatment of the minorities, and that the death penalty results into a reduction or deterrent to crimes and saves life. Those for capital punishment believe that the death penalty ultimately deter murderers from killing more innocent people. No concrete evidence justifies this assertion. Therefore the supporters suggest that the capital punishment is a basic reminder to the general public that there is no reward for crimes. It gives people a notion that if you engage in killing innocent people then you are forced to pay a quite high price (Zimring 95-96). Abolitionists, opponents of the death penalty argue that there is no need to take the life of a criminal to deter life, and that imprisonment in itself is a deterrent to criminal activities. Zimring (2004) asserts that deterring crime is only possible by frightening the would-be criminals by arrest, conviction, and punishment. However, imprisonment may not be enough for some criminals to stop committing more crimes. A number of criminals such as serial killers believe that they would never be caught and brought to justice. For these kinds of criminals, the death penalty should be warranted to teach others a lesson and instill fear in them. The advocates of anti the death penalty argue that capital punishment is irreversible, and may lead to making irreversible mistakes. I accept this fact because once someone is awarded the death penalty; there is no reverse even if they only failed to prove their innocence (Haag 77-78 ). However, the probability of making a mistake with the death pe nalty is very minimal, extremely low. Capital punishment is very extreme. Therefore, the judicial system exercises it with a lot of care and caution. Because of the various guaranteed rights protection of people facing capital punishment, guilt must be determined by convincing and clear evidence that leaves no room for alternative justification of facts. The right to appeal is also protected for the convicts, and other privileges that ensure only rightly accused persons are awarded the death penalty. According to Haag, whenever life is at stake, trials are often more likely to be fair, and the death penalty is less often inflicted unjustly than others. Therefore, the abolitionists’ argument of making irreversible mistakes is unjustified. People have argued that the death penalty theory is correct since people are deterred from doing crimes by what they fear most,  that people fear death more than any other punishment, that the death penalty is a deterrent to crimes that any other punishment possible, and that the capital punishment is humane enoug h and the law supports it. They also argue that because those sentenced to death normally do much to have the day postponed, it proves that people fear death and therefore will avoid it (Zimring 97). Others have also said that the televised executions are more effective as people exercise more reaction to what they see than that which they imagine. It is hence hard to threaten murderers with something basically invisible, but in their minds, the death penalty is a major deterrent option. These are justifications that the death penalty is effective. The U.S establishment of the death penalty was due to capital crimes and murder. State or congress legislature may recommend the death penalty for capital crimes. According to the Supreme Court ruling, the death penalty does not violate the Eighth Amendments ban per se on unusual and cruel punishment. However, the Eighth Amendment shapes certain aspects of procedures regarding where a jury may prescribe the death penalty and the way it must be conducted. Analyses of Eighth Amendment demand courts to consider the evolution of decency standards. This is important in ascertaining that a particular punishment constitutes an unusual or cruel punishment. It is required that when considering evolving decency standards, objective factors that show a change in standards of the community must be observed and independent evaluations made concerning the reliability and/or essence of the statute in question. Although the death penalty is being considered effective in deterring capital crimes, the Supreme Court ruling discredited capital punishment for juvenile offenders. Majority opinion indicated that juveniles are irresponsible and immature. They have incomplete character development and are greatly vulnerable to negative influences. The Supreme Court deduced that adolescent offenders assume reduced accountability for their crimes. However, social science researchers point out that people do commit murder widely in the heat of passion. The reas on for this may be influence from drug or alcohol, mental illness. This renders little or no thought to the consequences of the act. Those murderers who make plans of their murder crimes expect and intend to escape punishment by avoiding getting caught. Therefore, the death penalty may be appropriate in such cases (Zimring 98-101). In conclusion, I support the arguments given  by the proponents of the death penalty, the pro-capital punishment. I think death penalty should be reintroduced. I take this stance because I believe the death penalty serves a definite purpose of deterring crime and bringing criminals to justice, as well as honoring the victims. For capital punishment to rightly serve this purpose, it must be made efficient and more effective. The system of justice has gone through a drastic transformation to ensure only rightly accused persons are brought to justice. I believe the death penalty ensures societal safety, brings criminals to book, brings justice to the victims, and deter crimes and reduce the number of criminals. From these illustrations, I believe capital punishment should not be abolished. Capital punishment is necessary to maintain public safety and keep justice shining in the society. It also cuts down the number of convicts on death row. The death penalty relieves families and friends who lose their loved ones in the merciless hands of criminals. It also solves the problem of overcrowding through a humane action. From this account, the death penalty aids in resolving a number of societal criminal issues. Therefore, I take the stance of the pro-capital punishment: I support the reintroduction of death penalty. Works Cited Haag, Ernest Van Den. On Deterrence and Death Penalty, Reserved reading for Philosophy, 2(3) 2003; 44-78. Zimring, F. E. The Contradictions of American Capital Punishment, New York: Oxford University Press. 2004. Print.

Providing Leadership in an Organisation

Providing Leadership in an Organisation Providing leadership for a team in an organisation       Task one 1. Give your brief history of your organisation and your role in organisation? United Flower Growers Ltd (UFG) is a company formed by the combination of grower-owned companies United Flower Auction Limited, and the flower operational arm of Market Gardeners Limited creating a truly unique and well-structured marketing organization that is totally focused to the needs of the New Zealand Flower Industry. It is located in 500 MT wellington highway in mt wellington. I am working as a supervisor in the company which is really hard for me I have to do lots of work to arrange auction. We arrange 3 auctions in a week. Auctions start at 6 am but we have to load the trollies before the auction so we start working at 3 am. UFG currently runs two physical in-house auction systems in Auckland and wellington. This auction runs on the Dutch Auction Method using an electronic clock system with the aid of an auctioneer. The clock descends anti-clockwise from a set start price and then decreasing in price until a buyer is wants to make a bid and accept the purchase price. The big advantage of this system is the speed, accuracy and fairness of the sales process. Fresh flowers are delivered the day before, overnight or early morning prior to the start of the auction. The flowers are sold on a non-preferential basis. The flowers are sold on a non-preferential basis. This means that provided product is received prior to the auction cut off time, the flowers can be sold at any time during the auction. Q2.state your Organisation visions and values, and then explain them in a way that is meaningful and would be understood to your team? Visions As an industry-owned company, our goals and objectives are almost identical to those of our suppliers and customers and to be alive in the flower industry for the 50 years. We will continue to work as industry partners with all involved in the NZ flower industry. Values Be friendly to customers. Responsible to your job Punctual to work Co-operative with other staff management. Name and fame of company. Q3.How do you know that your team understand your visions and Values? As a supervisor it is my responsibility to check with my team is they really understand the visions and values of the organisation. It can be done in many ways so I am going to describe following- Meetings- by doing meeting with my team members I can confirm that they got it or not. Feedback- at the end of the month I can take feedback from each staff member to make sure they understand the vision and values. Work performance- I think it is also a best way to make sure everybody is working on the expectations of the company; I can observe or supervise their work they are working good or not. Q4. Describe at least two leadership styles that you have used in the context of your work explain how you chosen your leadership styles influence others in your team to achieve your organisational goals and it is consistent with its visions and values ? Autocratic leadership is a leadership style controlled by individual control to make all the decisions. Autocraticleaders typically make choices based on their ideas and judgments and rarely accept advice from other team members. For example if I want to fire somebody from work whether he is working good or not, if I want to fire him I dont take any advice from anybody I just make my decision. Democratic leadership is a type of leadership style in which members of the group take a more participative role in the decision-making process. Everyone is given the opportunity to participate, ideas are exchanged freely, and discussion is encouraged. For example if I want to hire somebody so I will decide with my team members that are there any need to hire somebody or not. Q5. Providing examples of how you model behaviour that are consistent with your organisational visions and values? Group work is depending on the basis of individual partners. They need to trust, respect, and support each other. It can be anything at the workplace for example support and help if anybody need. Sharing Information Communication Patience Honesty Team work Ans6. Personal styles Friendly Every employer has a dream to have employees with glowing behaviours, making management of employees an easy task. Talk nicely with staff and customers. If any problem try to solve it with patience. Co-operative It means to respect, and support each other. It can be anything at the workplace for example support and help if anybody need. Working styles The Social Work Style Helpers The Investigative Work Style Problem solving The Conventional Work Style Organizers The Artistic Work Style Creates more plans Q7.Describe an example of a workplace situation where inconsistent styles were present, however you were able to provide support to individual and teams to achieve consistency? Ans7. I am a supervisor at UFG, as a supervisor I have to face many difficulties and to provide consistency in a team or a workplace is best option is to make team spirit in your working team that everyone in your team is to be friendly to every person of your team. An example for my workers not work properly like be lazy due to any cause I use leadership style democratic first discussing with all the staff about their working by individual meetings or staff meeting then after that see their working if they start working better so it is good but if not then apply autocratic leadership style by straight order to them or give them warning if the last time they do the same then harshly fire them from their job. Assignment Task Two Section 1 A. We can establish a team behavioural expectations and standards with some responsibility if we give responsibility to someone. One of the best key components of establishing a team is to setting expectations for the team members who are coming on my path way. 1. See the members interest in the company problems or anything happen in company that they take part in companys matter or not. 2. See company decision making skills by which you get a simple idea that companys members knows about all the characteristics visions and values of company. 3. The behavioural expectations of the team is seen in the general organisation. B. Yes thee agreed behavioural expectation and standards must be clear and consider and should be recorded in a format that meets your individual teams and organisational requirements. I can see effecting of each person from the gathering and all things considered, in case I see execution drop in a gathering or an individual, and have a meeting with him/her or gathering to energize that individual or gathering moreover help the individual or meeting in accomplishing their points and this improves the execution of the person. C. It must be align to with the organization vision and values it is very important for good work performance. If everybody is working according to the vision and values then we can work nicely. By watching s and groups advance and taking a gander at what objectives have been skilled and in the event that they coordinate with the relations values and vision. Minutes of meetings Staff meeting minutes: Meeting title- issues during work Date Wednesday, 1, March, 2016 Time of the meeting 11:00 am Area of meeting: Staff room Visitors Sandeep Open correspondence: none Attendees: karanvir Singh Sandeep Singh, Rajkawal Singh kamaljit Singh, Mandeep Singh Absentees: Arshdeep Singh, Rajvir singh Planes: 1. Need to look after the customers and satisfy them by giving incredible qualities of organizations. 2. Issue of parking. 3. Talk to the other staff and conform with them where we need more staff. Agenda Scene: auction room Time: 11 am Participants: Manager Happy Supervisor Karanvir Singh Administrator Sandeep Singh Group Leader-Rajvir Singh Minute taker: kawal Singh 1. Customer service 2. Parking issues of colleagues. 3. Need more staff. All agreed. Section 2 A) Problem in the working environment can be a positive technique if managed reasonably. Issues besides, issues are seen and directed in a split second. In the event that I continually ignoring issues that is without a doubt making issues my accomplices it might understand the lessened level of thankfulness between the accomplices and social event pioneer. To guarantee issues of accomplices are watched out for, I equip them with plan of their duties and assets. It is fundamental to screen my social occasion, uninhibitedly and taking all things into account to examine their issues and issues worry with their work and working environment endeavoring to see issues before they wind up being full scale issues. They give me responses on the movement of work and on the off chance that they require additional asset or time to complete the endeavor. Outline: Rajkawal required additional opportunity to arrange on the reference with the client association supplier (alluded to not) as the suppli er was away. B) I guarantee I have a sorted out talk with every individual from the social event and take a gander at any issues or bolster they require secluded from the meeting. Beginning late Dilraj clearly was late at work. On exchange with him I discovered he had transportation issues. Anmol goes from an undefined course from Dilraj and we examined the matter with Anmol why should merry give Dilraj transportation until his auto was settled. C) The achievement of any attempt relies on upon the duties of each individual from the total, yet two or three clusters arrange superior to anything others. Precisely when accomplices have an assessment particular proprietorship in the social event meander, accept that their obligations are respected, additionally, see that the attempt manager contributes nearly and exhibit others how its done, they feel affected to contribute their best work. By allowing to everybody to talk up and to share their contemplations, make everybody a pioneer, being an ordinary illustration and empowering proprietorship, these things demonstrates particularly pleasing to support the partners. I utilize the running with strategy to broaden unrivaled in the social event. I keep records of the progress .To make a region for accomplishment, by purging hindrances, setting an unmistakable vision and giving major mechanical gatherings and arranging. d) I allow my partners to stand up their viewpoints in the midst of our social events. Exactly when the whole assembling should be incorporated at the same time, I explore accord essential authority models. With these, each gathering part has the opportunity to give data and suppositions. All people discuss decisions until we overall agree on an answer. With understanding, theres frequently exchange off. Not everyone gets all that they require out of an official conclusion. Regardless, in light of the fact that everyone has sensible information, the decisions came to are often ones that all can live with. E) Enhance and support (1) Monitoring the work adequately (giving hopeful input and responding to issues in the work with gratefulness and offer) Anmol required additional some assistance with timing to complete his assignment in managing the Customer Service Course Provider. I comprehended that in this way of the inaccessibility of the supplier he was not set up to finish his work inside the time partition and required additional time. (2) Providing socio-anxious fortify (indicating support for a colleagues activities or choices; soothing unsavory conditions for subordinates; mixing; keeping accomplices instructed about upsetting conditions; tending; really appraisals; and uncovering individual data). I saw when Sandeep was not set up to complete his work and was underweight because of transport issues. I procured Sandeep and Manoj for a little espresso meeting to deal with his issue. Anmol was demonstrated support and vitality to help Sandeep. F) Mutual trust among individuals I develop my social affair on the initiate of their lord accomplishment all together for accomplices to regard each other. I see their accomplishment straightforwardly. I dont talk about bungles made by a partner despite his awesome certainty. I have to recognize with him stealthily and exhibit how he can overhaul his execution. Prohibit bits of jibber jabber inside the social event, keeping an open ear to stories which can contain hurting, adversarial or too much individual information on any individual from the get-together. This can be a basic inability to our social event. I ensure all individuals are overseen correspondingly as and no twofold standard obliged to any one individual from the social occasion. Distribute work in sensible way. Solve clashes in ace way. G) Encourage new thoughts that encourage viable cooperation I make a working environment where all suggestion, obligations and activities are welcome from specialists at all levels of the affiliation. I hold social affairs to create new considerations. Compensate staff for their exertion by offering impelling forces e.g. I gave Anmol trade compensate for getting out a Customer Benefit Course Provider who engineered with us and gave us an arrangement which was less exorbitant than some other relationship in our general region. Section 3 A) I interface with individuals outside the social occasion utilizing fitting correspondence channels. If they have an inclination for email, I email to interface with them or telephone call, faxet cetera. I do plan key delegates inside our social event on the best way to deal with manage the general people when observing request on touchy issues. In addition I utilize studies and reviews to assess and address issues. B) Some techniques for correspondence from people outside our gathering are by methods for email, phone calls, verbal correspondences, surveys, studies et cetera. C) With the cut-off points and experience and being an old staff of our organization together, karan was hopeless about his wages. There hadnt been any improvement to his pay inside the latest year. With the creating workload he was expecting a remuneration rise soon. He was crying of this matter on a few occasions. Associates were beginning to get exasperated by his difficulties. I had information from the head concerning the issue. I had visits with the money and back division if there can be pay climb in weeks to come. i promised them that Surjit is a resolute worker and no doubt we are experiencing workload starting at now. It is sensible to give him a compensation rise. Since contradictions and emerges are inescapable from social affairs, the best methodology is urging accomplices to learn sharpens that offer them some assistance with working through clashes and keep up careful working relationship in the meantime. D. The second issue was, there was a two individuals, one of my area of skill and the other of the other division were having strife with each other over some negligible issue and they were the primary communicators in the middle of both the offices they conveyed each others specializations data and were in this way essential in correspondence inside the offices and for the powerful working of the organization as they having a few issues with each other they used to overlook imperative datas sent from each other or werent notwithstanding sending any and were reprimanding each other for the disappointment which cost the association a lot as far as customers and notoriety, then they both were called attempted to mollify them two and instructed them to be proficient in work and on the off chance that they didnt work appropriately and the organization endures any further misfortunes they will be ended from there on they kept that hatred out of the workplace and began working legitimately . E. The healing move made for the principal example was to have a meeting with that representative and educated him regarding the significance of the client benefit and in the event that he doesnt enhances than stern move will be made against him. In the second case I apologized to the client and changed the standard and asked client that we can give the thing at a similar value we have posted on the flag on the off chance that he needs. Reference https://ufg.co.nz/growers https://ufg.co.nz/work/inhouse-auctioning

The Awakening Essay -- essays research papers

The Awakening, written by Kate Chopin, tells the story of a woman, Edna Pontellier, who transforms herself from an obedient housewife to a person who, is alive with strength of character and emotions which she no longer has to repress. Playing the role of a wealthy New Orleans housewife, Edna searches for fulfillment in her customary 19th century life, where the Creole society had high expectations of their women. Even with children, a generous husband, and financial stability, Edna finds herself wanting more from life. In the novel, two women friends of Edna, Adele Ratignole and Mademoiselle Reitz signify her awakening and the consequences of her new found self. 	Edna was attracted to both women for their prospective connection to the two existences within which Edna struggles to find herself. Adele Ratignolle is Edna's close friend and confidante, but the two women are nothing alike. Adele is the perfect housewife and mother; she is the epitome of what a Creole woman and mother ought to be. She lives her life for her children, always being sure that they are properly cared for, clothed, and educated. Unlike Adele whose life is fulfilled through loving and caring for her children, Edna is "fond of her children in an uneven, impulsive way" (Chopin, p. 18). They are not enough to justify her life. Adele could not understand how Edna could say that she "would never sacrifice herself for her children, or for anyone" (Chopin, p. 47). Edna's being is ...

The Future :: Argumentative Persuasive Science Papers

The Future It is by following clues that we make discoveries, not by reasoning inductively. Now some people would accept this view but nevertheless argue that in science we cannot avoid reasoning inductively. For , , they say, suppose we have discovered a law of nature—let us say the law that all metals expand when heated. Now in saying that this is a law of nature we are saying that it holds not only in the past but also in the future. If it is a law of nature that all metals expand when heated, then metals will expand when heated not just today but also tomorow. But how do we know they will expand tomorow? Tomorow has not yet come. If we know, we can only know by reasoning inductively (they say). The law has held in the past; therefore it will hold in the future. Reasoning from the past to the future is inductive reasoning. In this paper I want to respond to this argument. My point will be, there is no need to reason inductively even in science. To help make my point I will draw on three examples. Example 1: Station A Suppose you crack ciphers. You have been intercepting messages from a radio station which you have called Station A. The messages transmited by Station A are encrypted by a cipher which you have already broken, a cipher which for your own convenience you have called Cipher X. Because you have already broken Cipher X, for the past six months you have been able to read every single message sent out by Station A. This morning you have intercepted another message. You have not deciphered it yet ... How are you going to decipher your new message? Are you going to decipher it by using Cipher X, the cipher you have broken and which Station A has been using these past six months? I think you are likely to say, 'Of course! ' So you will decipher the new message using Cipher X, as I too if I were in your position. Let us now go over the situation again. You have broken Cipher X. You have been deciphering all messages from Station A using Cipher X. You are now about to decipher this newly intercepted message by using Cipher X. Now considering what you have done and what you are about to do, can we infer that you are reasoning inductively?

Film Critique: Encoding and Decoding

Banshees and Griffin used the critically acclaimed film, The Lion King, as their case study. They decoded that the villainy Is linked to stereotypical traits of male homosexuality. Jamie Blanks encoded meaning Into the film. Blanks encoded Ideology of sexuality, class, and culture. Since the film Is In the horror genre, the film might not be taken serious, thus It may be seem to have little to say about actual human relations and Ideologies. According to the cultural studies model, the cultural artifact Storm Warning Is the text, Its producer IsJamie Blanks, and the readers are all the people that have seen the film since its release. Readers who enjoyed the film were most likely using dominant readings of the text, they cheered for the couple that were tormented throughout the movie hoping that they would find a way to defeat the â€Å"Three Bears†. Yet, whenever there are people that like something, there are always critics. The critics of the film use oppositional readings. For example, some readers may have been bothered that the film traumatized how three men living in the middle of nowhere with a â€Å"boorish† epistyle and negative upbringing must be monsters or animals.The film brings the idea that these men must be murders and rapist because that is the way they grew up thinking. That is almost as if to say that because many African-American grew up in environments that consist of murders and drugs, that they will all grow up to be murders and drug lords. The film made them a victim of their environment. It shows that people living isolated zones must live like animals and do socially unacceptable things like watch animal porn and attempt to rape the first female that comes around.Other oppositional that could be stated is that towards the beginning of the film, the leading lady, is viewed as very â€Å"feminine†. She seemed to be disgusted by the manly things that her male counterpart was doing, she didn't enjoy the brutality of t he killing of the fish nor the murder of the Kangaroo. Later, we see a change In her, showing more toughness after her boyfriend wasn't doing anything to get them out of this situation as his role says he should. Opposition may view this change as a way of showing that a female doesn't need a man to help them In situation as they have the mental toughness to help themselves.At the same time, It showed that the boyfriend was Indeed the â€Å"friendly† one. Whether it is intentional or non-intentional. Decoding is the viewer's interpretation of the meaning. The decoding varies from viewer to viewer based on individual social and historical upbringing. The manner in which the producers encoded the work acclaimed film, The Lion King, as their case study. They decoded that the villainy is into the film. Blanks encoded ideology of sexuality, class, and culture. Since the film is in the horror genre, the film might not be taken serious, thus it may be seem to eave little to say abou t actual human relations and ideologies.According to the cultural studies model, the cultural artifact Storm Warning is the text, its producer is around. Other oppositional that could be stated is that towards the beginning of by the manly things that her male counterpart was doing, she didn't enjoy the change in her, showing more toughness after her boyfriend wasn't doing anything to change as a way of showing that a female doesn't need a man to help them in situation as they have the mental toughness to help themselves. At the same time, it showed that the boyfriend was indeed the â€Å"feminine† one.

Bisexuality Politicised Essay

This paper asks the question how can bisexuality be or become a danger to the dominant sexual script which I problematise as produced racism, sexism, homophobia, and monosexism. That this brand of heterosexuality occupies 99% of our cultural space in entertainment, education, history and public expression and is considered inevitable and unchallengable for 90% of peoples relationships is, I will argue, the victory of white patriarchal science. I intend to show the nature of this victory and imagine what counter struggle and victories might emerge from the site of my bisexuality. The Historical role of Biphopia- Policing the Treaty. Underpinning this paper is the belief in that many if not all heterosexual identifying people can be bisexual and that the majority are to some extent not privately monosexual. The majority status of bisexuality does not make it normal nor ideal however I mention it because it is important to realise that the invisibility of bisexuality requires extraordinary effort to maintain and it’s repression occurs against all people not just a few â€Å"natural† bisexuals. To understand the historical role that biphobia has played and the historical position of bisexuality it is necessary to recognise homosexuality as a creation of western patriarchal and homophobic medical science. Women have always loved women and men have always loved men but the classification of these experiences as a sexuality with little or no element of choice and a biological or individual psychological basis was given currency in the 19th century by a professional class that feared same sex desire. Their construction of homosexuality shaped and informs Western cultural understanding of sexuality â€Å"not in the first place because of its meaningfulness to those whom it defines but because of its indispensableness to those who define themselves against it. † (Segal, L. p145) for it was and is needed â€Å"not only for the persecutory regulation of a nascent minority of distinctly homosexual men (and women) but also for the regulation of the male (and female) homosocial bonds that structure all culture – at any rate all public or heterosexual culture. † (Eve Sedgewick in Segal, L. pp194-5) Early psychoanalytic texts were quite explicit that the project was to police all male and female relationships warning â€Å"teachers and parents not to take too lightly friendships among girls which become passionate† and society to â€Å"be more concerned with the degree of heterosexuality or homosexuality in an individual than they are with the question of whether he has ever had an experience of either sort†. â€Å"The real danger from homosexuality† was seen to lie â€Å"not in actual sex association but in homosexual attitudes towards life† such as the negative attitudes of â€Å"thousands of women †¦ toward men, marriage and family life† influenced by â€Å"latent homosexuality† for â€Å"neurotic attitudes about love and marriage can prove contagious. † (Caprio, F. pp 6 -11) Generally, prior to this the western world had relied on Christianity to dictate the terms of sexuality. Whether sexual attraction was â€Å"natural† was no defence under a regime which tended to view â€Å"natural† sexual desires as needing control from a religious authority. The medical establishment faced the dilemma of replacing religious authorities without having any utilitarian basis for the repression of same sex desire. The construction of homosexuality as a distinct condition was to define normality as exclusive heterosexuality. In fact heterosexuality was simply the condition of being human. Sexual behaviour became a product of a persons condition; the â€Å"human condition† producing normal heterosexual behaviour. There was now no need for a religious justification for preferencing the heterosexual over the homosexual because behaviour was not a matter of choice but a matter of whether or not you were ill; Well or sane people simply didn’t want to have sex with people of their own gender. This was presented as a more humane response to homosexuality than religious condemnation or incarceration. Psychiatrists often called themselves compassionate as they argued for an adoption of â€Å"scientific† curative responses to homosexuality. (Caprio, F, p. xi) The majority gay and lesbian movement accepted the shifting of sexuality into an area for science and have embraced the notion of a biological basis or early psychological basis for sexuality. Their fight has largely been for homosexuality to be treated as incurable and it follows natural and equally valid alternative to heterosexuality, jettisoning any agenda to argue that is better. Only a minority have argued that homosexuality is a political choice and an option for everyone. With both sides ceasing hostilities1, when homosexuality was delisted as a mental illness in 1973 (Altman,D. ,p5), institutionalised heterosexuality and gays and lesbians overt interests have moved to coincide. Victories to normalise homosexuality also normalise heterosexuality’s dominance by depoliticising sexuality in general. In 1993 when a homosexuality gene was â€Å"discovered† a genetic basis for the majority status of heterosexuality was created though not declared. Anyone who would argue that the commonality of heterosexuality might have something to do with social programming and institutional support can now be said to be messing with nature. The proud bisexual threatens this peaceful coexistence of the heterosexual majority and homosexual minority. Recognition of our bisexuality requires a validation of our sexual relationships with people of our own gender based on choice rather than the agreed legitimate biological basis. Such choice may be personal or circumstantial but also political or moral. Normalising bisexuality with a biological cause won’t defuse it’s threat though it could contain it if it relegates us to a fixed minority status. Society still has to reckon with why we choose to validate relationships with people of our own gender by identifying as bisexual. We reopen old debates that many who have found safety in a biological basis for their monosexual identity want to keep closed. (I will revisit this fear in the last section, Bisexuality and the Future when I discuss Bi supremacy. ) A bisexual identity simply has to be defined as confused or an exception to the rule. Individuals have to be pressured to fit themselves into one or the other category. In a secular society without moral taboos people can’t be allowed to entertain the idea that their partners gender is political. Also, understandably gays and lesbians know those moral taboos still hold significant power so many still see their best option as policing the treaty based on the attribution of their sexuality to a biological or psychological cause. Bisexuality and identification – Withdrawing our support for the status quo. The bisexual identifying person is not predominantly someone who feels attraction equally to both genders or without any reference to gender2 and in terms of actual sexual or emotional experience the majority could be classified as predominantly homosexual or heterosexual. â€Å"Why then, don’t you call yourself gay or straight? † is the inevitable response to this confession. And confession it feels like because to indicate a â€Å"leaning† puts at risk the validity given to a bisexual identity within contemporary discourse. Sexual expression is usually presented as representative of something innate rather than a mediation between a person and their world. Consequently the woman who says she usually finds women easier to make emotional connections with is seen to be describing her â€Å"innate† difficulty emotionally connecting with men rather than her experience of men and their culture. Asserting a bisexual identity in the face of this invalidation is about contextualising sexual responses rather than finding invisible internal reasons for them. A bisexual identity in the above circumstance keeps open the possibility that a preference for emotional relationships with women could change if men and male culture changed. Alternatively a preference for sex with men might be attributable to homophobia. (Weinberg, M. S. , p221) The reasons for choices are not always positive ones but the possibility for counter argument exists. Holding onto a bisexual identification based on potentiality, rejects the conservatism of describing reality by the status quo. However a bisexual identity is also partially an attempt to accurately relate personal history as well and this too has a radical power. Most monosexual identifications represent people only by concealing some bisexuality. By identifying as bisexual a person accepts and celebrates those aspects of their life that are inconsistent with a monosexual identity. The power of metanarratives within modernism, including descriptions of sexuality, relies on such inconsistencies being deemed insignificant. Hence a public bisexual identity is a confrontation of generalist theories with lived experience. If people promote such a solidarity with their experiences and the people who compose them that is greater than any to a proposed theory then expounders of metanarratives (including myself) will lose power. Our authority to dictate â€Å"from above† will be replaced by a decentralised authority based on being â€Å"up close† to our own reality. Bisexuality and other oppressions. Sexuality forms alliances across genders, ethnicities, and classes so any bisexual movement which fails to take gender, race or class issues into account poses a real danger of obscuring differences and concealing oppression. (This is also true for a multiplicity of issues such as disability or mental illness). My discussion of bisexuality and other basis for oppression are not intended to present bisexual identification as the panacea of the worlds ills. Social change must be inspired by a diversity of experience and informed by a range of critiques. Given the above it is presumptious for me as a half-wog male to seek to resolve ongoing debates about a bisexual political agenda among feminist women or debates among black women and men on how to connect bi pride with anti-racism. To do so would be to pretend that I can speak from only my bisexuality and abandon any white, male perspctive. As a long term unemployed person I believe I can speak on class issues from the inside to some extent but also still acknowledge the privelage of my university education. This is not to say that I think that sexism is a womens issue or that the responsibility for opposing racism is solely non-whites. Nor am I comfortable being accountable to lesbian or straight feminists on the issue of bisexual profeminism or placing beyond reproach the homophobia of some black liberationist theorists like Eldrige Cleaver. What to speak on and when in regard to a radical bisexualitys’ impact on patriarchal, white supremist and class oppresion is best defined as problematic. As a simple way out I hope to show how I see a politicised bisexuality contributes to my pro-feminism, anti-racism and support for class struggles. It is my hope that this will have relevance for a wider audience. Radical Bisexuality and Pro-feminism. Judith Butler states that â€Å"the heterosexualisation of desire requires and institutes the production of discrete and assymetrical oppositions between â€Å"feminine† and â€Å"masculine† identities. † (Segal, L. p190) Monique Wittig goes further to argue that a woman’s place in heterosexuality is a class of oppression and that the lesbian escapes her class position. (Wittig, M, p. 47) I agree that â€Å"hetero†-sexuality (literally a sexuality based on opposites) reproduces and supports womens oppression in other spheres by creating a binary gender system. Men need to realise that their love for women is problematic when it is that â€Å"love† of the â€Å"feminine identity† that belongs to this sytem. This is the attraction for the other and requires women’s difference to be exaggerated and emphasised. These exaggerations shape women as not-men while we men shape ourselves and are shaped into embodiments of the ideal. The seeming irony of male heterosexuality where women are objects of love being consistent with misoginy where women are objects of hate makes perfect sense through the operation of oppositional heterosexuality precisely because the love requires women to be less than men. A love that does not require partners to be different than ourselves is not possible within exclusive heterosexuality because it fails to provide the argument to repress same sex desire. It is necessary for heterosexual men to confront their homophobia which demands they repress or invalidate their same sex desire before they can love their female partners as their â€Å"own kind† and not another species. An additional benifit to patriarchy of discrete gender identities that is liable to be lost when men reject oppositional heterosexuality is the regulation of male social interaction. The arguments to exclude gay men from the military reveal the mindset deemed necessary to produce a war machine; â€Å"We are asking men in combat to do an essentially irrational thing – put themselves in a position where they are likely to get killed †¦ One of the few ways to persuade men to do that is to appeal to their masculinity †¦ You cannot have an adrogynous military †¦ The idea that fighting is a masculine trait runs deep. As a cultural trait it predates any written history. It may even be a genitic trait †¦ Just think what it would mean to demasculinize combat. The effect on combat effectiveness might be catastrophic. † – Charles Moskos, Military Socioligist quoted in Colonel R. D. Ray, Military Necessity and Homosexuality (Gays:In or Out, p63) It is regrettable that non-heterosexual men and many women are proving they too can make excellent soldiers. 3 However the above quote exaggerates a fact that male â€Å"buddy† relationships are relied on by the military and that this requires a repression of same sex desire. This is because same sex desire is preferential – it is not a love of all men equally – but of a few and potentially for a time. The same-sex loyalty that is demanded by patriarchy including it’s military needs the stability of exclusive heterosexuality; â€Å".. the recognition of homosexuality is a threat to that peculiar combination of male camaraderie and hierachy on which most organisations depend; sexual desire is too anarchic, too disrespectful of established boundaries to be trusted. † (Altman, D. p63) Unravelling their heterosexuality is not the most important thing men must do to support feminism however it is a legitimate part of this support for â€Å"it is the repressed recognition of this fact (that everyone can be homosexual) that does much to fuel homophobia, but equally acts so as to promote male bonding and certain crucial authority structures. † (Altman D. ,p XI) Radical Bisexuality and Racism. The construction of homosexuality as a â€Å"natural† difference from the heterosexual norm shares and competes for the same conceptual space as constructions of race as biological differences from the white norm. This is particularly true because the hetrosexual ideal is represented as white with the sexuality of non-whites traditionally seen as untamed, violent, promiscuous or otherwise deviant even if heterosexual. Non-whites are considered only ever partly heterosexual while white queers are considered not proper whites. The competition for the limited conceptual space has led to historical difficulites in linking white supremacy with heterosexism (exacerbated by white queer activists own racial interests) and in fact has unwittingly linked Gay Power with white power. â€Å"Homosexuality as a race† has developed into a gay and lesbian ethnicity. For whites under racism where their whiteness is considered the norm and thus unnamed, this ethnicity is their only ethnicity, the lesbian/gay â€Å"language† their only language, and lesbian/gay history their only history, to the point that it is not seen as a difference within whiteness but a difference from whiteness. (Blasingame, p52) While we (white queers) are unconscious of our whiteness queer cultural politics consequently becomes a way of colonising non-white cultures with a new white culture, white leaders and white history in a particularly insidious way. While not as powerful as heterosexual institutions for people wanting to be publicly non-heterosexual we have considerable power; in the framing of beauty along racist lines, in the support of white non-heterosexual bourgeoius or political leaders and in the very conceptualisation of sexuality. As one example Brenda Marie Blasingame in Bisexuality and Feminism speaks of a history of sexuality in U. S. black communities which did not include placing people in particular â€Å"boxes† and accepted the practice of bisexuality. A part of moving into the white gay and lesbian movement for her was the requirement to come out as a specific sexuality and accept the marginalisation of bisexuals. For many people who are not white taking up a gay or lesbian and to a different extent bisexual identity requires an abandonment of their own ethnic politcal identity or view. (Blasingame, pp. 51 – 53) The common conceptual space of non-heterosexual and non-white however can and should however produce queer anti-racism provided white queers realise that this conception of their sexuality is wrong. There is a shared interest in anti-racism and anti-heterosexism in critiqing normalcy and naturalness. As only one example the construction of beauty posits that naturally â€Å"Gentlemen prefer Blondes†. Not only is this sexist for reducing women to a hair colour (and the Blonde is meant to be read as a woman) but it is heterosexist and clearly as racist as â€Å"Gentlemen prefer whites† when Blonde is only a white persons natural hair colour. When we politicise our sexuality we can open up not only the arguments against heterosexual dominance but the arguments against the sexual sterotypes of non-whites including the framing of Asian men as â€Å"young girls† represented in this regrettable quote from the 70’s magazine Gay Power; â€Å"I dig beautiful oriental men. Asking me to shoot at them is the same thing as asking heterosexual soldiers to shoot at beautiful young girls that they would like to fuck. † (Teal, D. p99) Radical Bisexuality and Class. It is worth noting that capitalism which I understand as the continual oppression of the poor that patriarchy is for women is no longer wedded to heterosexuality in Western affluent nations as it has been in the past. This is because Western nations are primarily consumer societies of fairly easily produced goods (easily because their production is either located in the Third World or in the Quattro Monde – the world of the Western underclass or because their production is automated). Western capitalism can therefore relax the â€Å"restraint and repression† which was necessary to both control factory floors and ensure a ready supply of human capital through reproduction. (Altman D, p90) Part of this is also due to unemployment and global capital mobility being sufficient to obtain cheap labour and another contributing factor has been Western women raising their education so they are more useful in employment than at home. Also marriage was the institution by which women were given the role of providing a whole range of services capitalism wouldn’t such as aged care and child raising as well as supporting adult men. Now many of these services are provided by profitable private institutions so traditional marriages are actually in competition with capitalism. Of course the worlds poor can’t afford these services and Thirld World countries remain supportive of compulsory heterosexuality (Altman, D, p90) but in the Western consumer-capitalism there is a an interest to increase consumption through the market of previous services fulfilled by women’s unpaid labour. In order to perpetuate consumption growth capitalism must also locate new disatisfactions like teenage angst, at an alarming rate while also offering at a price their answer. In this context gay, lesbian and even bisexual identities as well as transgenderism, S+M and fetish celebrations are eagerly embraced by many industries as the basis for new markets. Our anxiety for recognition, meaning, ceremony and a positive celebration of our sexuality are easily exploitable. â€Å"†¦ one of the possible negative side-effects of the popularity of ‘lesbian chic’ was that it codes lesbianism as merely a kind of fashion statement, something that requires certain consumer goods to mark the individual as lesbian. † (Newitz & Sandell) Bisexuals have to be mindful that while we seek recognition, capitalism is looking for new markets and while these interests coincide this will only be true for those of us who can afford it and it will be on the backs of the world’s poor involved in the production of our new consumerables and bearing the greatest brunt of the waste from our new consumption. One positive way to resist becoming merely another market is by applying the awareness of the political nature of sexual desire to the desire for consumer goods and services. Both desires are constructed to serve particular interests and not fundamentally our own. Through working to ensure that all of our desire works for liberation we will resist commodification as we achieve recognition. Bisexuality and the Future To outline what I see as the goal of Radical Bisexuality I will illustrate two scenarios depicting false victories and one which I believe genuinely opens up the greatest possibility for liberation. Scenario 1. Recognition of bisexuality as a third alternative way that people unchangably are. To some extent as I have said earlier this can’t overcome the capacity of bisexuals to fit in as straight and thus can’t conceal the choice to embrace the homosexuality within the heterosexual that they represent. However there are arguments that could be presented that bisexuals have to express their same sex desire or become depressed (â€Å"go mad†). These arguments could form the basis of depoliticising and medicalising bisexuality as has been done with homosexuality. This may make bisexual lives easier to defend and add to the options for young people but relegates bisexuals to the same minority status as is currently given to gays and lesbians. Most people who admit to loving their own gender in straight society would face the same oppression bisexuals now face as â€Å"heterosexual experimenters† and recruitment of the majority would be difficult as they would remain â€Å"true† heterosexuals as unable to change as â€Å"true† bisexuals or gays and lesbians. Further it could also trade the oppression that is invisibility for bisexuals with the oppression that is hyper-visibility for straight men and women, and increasingly gays and lesbians. Having recognised sexuality’s repression but not it’s production we will be easily exploitable by capitalism and our liberation may mean as being as marketed to and ritutalised as heterosexuality. Scenario 2. Bisexuality is considered the only natural sexuality which equates it with the only right sexuality. Heterosexuality would be patholigised along with homosexuality as both are considered to have unnatural â€Å"blocks† to loving one or the other gender. This is Bisexual Supremacy which I acknowledge as a justification for gays and lesbians to distrust bisexuals. While it is unlikely to be widely accepted it is possible that it could dominate queer spaces as a pocket of resistance to heterosexual dominance in the same way as celebrations of gay and lesbian purity have. It is certainly more likely to be targetted at lesbians and gays than straights and while this is the fault of heterosexism’s power, not my own, it must be refuted. This is not to say that politicising sexuality will not require some gay men in particular to reassess their rhetoric. Mysoginistic comments which denegrate women’s bodies deserve political criticism and can’t be assured the right to be accepted. However the wider charge of institutionalising the sexual oppression of women and supporting male social bonding can’t be levelled at male homosexuality and certainly not at lesbianism. Indeed at certain points in the struggle against institutionalised oppression different sexual identifications and choices will be appropriate. Because bisexuality is as deliberate a sexuality choice as any other and not a submission to some biological imperative (and even if it were I reject the claim that naturalness equals rightness) we can’t claim an non-contextual ideal status. Its political usefulness is only that of any tactic relative both to the circumstances and to the person, meaning that for some and at some times other sexual choices and identifications are more appropriate. Bisexual supremacy also prioritises the effort to be bisexual over other efforts to unravel heterosexist, patriarchal and racist programming. I have already stressed the need for a variety of critiques of power to inform social change which Bisexual supremacy ignores. In particular men in relationships with women need to realise that doing their share of the housework is far more meaningful than maintaining or developing their capacity to love other men. Scenario 3. The Dream. Realising our sexualities are scripted will hopefully prompt redrafts along feminist, anti-racist and anti-capitalist lines. No-one should be the sole author of this project even with their own sexuality as we all need to listen to the perspectives our privelages rob us off. Certainly a part of this will be a dialogue between political lesbians, bisexuals and straight women which already has a history and whose future I don’t want to conclude. Consequently my dream is vague. What I don’t see in this future is the fetishisation of wealth, whiteness or gendered difference. Women in relationships with men will recieve support and encouragement as full humans. Advertisers will be incapable of capturing our consumption with snake oil as we demand economic production satisfy new needs that we create, for justice and community. Pleasure including sexual pleasure will mean enjoying our values not forgetting them. Bisexuality like other sexualities will have to argue it’s political legitimacy but not it’s existance. Sexual identifications such as â€Å"Confused† may replace bisexual for many if it is recognises more of their personal truth and political terms like Anti-racist may be key elements of sexual identification. Radical bisexuality wont end all struggles but the raw energy of sexuality will be accountable to and in the employ of the great project of improving the world . Bibliography Altman, Dennis, The Homosexualisation of America, The Americanization of the Homosexual, St. Martins Press, New York, 1982 Sedgewick, E. K. , â€Å"How to Bring Your Kids Up Gay†, pp. 69 – 81, Fear of a Queer Planet : Queer Politics and Social Theory, Warner,M. (Editor), University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1993 Segal, Lynne, Straight Sex: Rethinking the Politics of Pleasure, University of California Press, U. S. A. , 1994. Foucalt, Michel, The History of Sexuality, Volume 1:An Introduction, Allen Lane, London, 1978 Newitz, A. and J. Sandell,â€Å"Bisexuality And How To Use It: Toward a Coalitional Identity Politics†, Bad Subjects, Issue # 16, October 1994 Caprio, F. S. M. D. Female Homosexuality:A Psychodynamic study of Lesbianism, The Citadel Press, New York, 1954 Weinberg,M. S. , C. J. Williams, D. W. Pryor, Dual Attraction: Understanding Bisexuality, Oxford University Press, Inc. , New York, 1994 Blasingame, B. M. , â€Å"The Roots of Biphobia: Internalised Racism and Internalised Heterosexism† in Closer to Home: Bisexuality and Feminism, Edited by E. R. Wise, Seal Press, U. S. A. , 1992 Colonel R. D. Ray, Military Necessity and Homosexuality , reprinted in Gays:In or Out: The U. S. Military & Homosexuals – A Source book, Brassey’s, March 1993. Teal D. , The Gay Militants, Stein and Day Publishers, New York, 1971. Wittig, M. , The Straight Mind and Other Essays, Beacon Press. Boston, 1992 Descriptors for Sexual Minorities †¢ Front Page †¢ What is h2g2? †¢ Who’s Online †¢ Write an Entry †¢ Browse †¢ Announcements †¢ Feedback †¢ h2g2 Help †¢ RSS Feeds Contact Us Like this page? Send it to a friend! Descriptors for Sexual Minorities | Asexuality | Homosexuality Heterosexuality | Bisexuality | Polyamory | The Kinsey Scale | The Gender Pronoun Game | Coming Out Embarrassing Questions About Sexual Orientation | Going Back In – Sexuality U-turns Modern culture has developed a number of terms and symbols to set apart its sexual minorities. Some of these originated within the different communities themselves. Others evolved from scientists, psychologists, legislators, and newspaper reporters trying to describe their gay, bisexual, transsexual, and polyamorous subjects. Many include obscure references to history that go largely unrecognized. Words Lesbian The word lesbian comes from the Greek island Lesbos, where the poet Sappho lived in 600 BC. Sappho wrote numerous poems about her female love, most of which were destroyed by religious fanatics during the Middle Ages. While the first usage of the word lesbian is unknown, it was used in several academic books as early as 1880. The word became more popular during the 20th Century, especially during the feminist era. The term ‘lesbian separatist’ was commonly used to distinguish feminists who wished to avoid the company of men altogether. Fag, Faggot, Fag Hag ‘Fag’ and ‘faggot’ are American insults for gay men. The term ‘faggot’ first started being used in this way in around 1914, but it is not clear where the word came from. A faggot is a bundle of sticks, used for firewood and tied up for carrying around. In the 16th century it was used as an insulting term for a useless old woman as something that weighs you down, in the same way that ‘baggage’ is sometimes used nowadays. But it’s quite a jump from 1592 to 1914 with nothing recorded in between. Gay men in the latter half of the 20th Century began using the term ‘fag hag’ to refer to straight women who frequently gather at gay establishments, partly as an insult and partly because of the rhyme. Dyke Contrary to popular belief, the origin of the insult ‘dyke’1, in reference to lesbians, has nothing to do with waterways or canals. The word first appeared in 1710 in British newspaper stories about presumed homosexuals Anne Bonny and Mary Reed. The two women captained a very successful pirate venture and completed several lucrative raids of the British Empire before agreeing to be interviewed. Reporters often noted their predilection for wearing men’s clothing, and one editorial avoided the unpleasant connotations of cross dressing by using a French word which refers to men’s clothing, dike. Over the years, this term was corrupted to the modern form ‘dyke’. Since then, general misunderstanding about the term’s origins have inspired many stand-up comedy routines and bad puns. Polyamory, Polygamy, Monogamy The prefix ‘poly-‘ means many, while ‘mono’ means one. The suffix ‘gamy’ was originally from the French word for marriage, but has since been misunderstood as referring to sex. These terms refer to the number of consensual romantic partners taken by each adult in a family. Of course, the suffix ‘amory’ refers to love. Polyamory is a relatively new term coined by modern practitioners, and is greatly preferred by them. Polygamy and the now defunct term bigamy were coined as early as 1800, as the practice of multiple marriages was outlawed in most Western nations. The state of Utah in the USA applied for Statehood three times before finally accepting an injunction against the polygamy practised at that time by the Mormon church. Polygamy is commonly understood as referring to heterosexual relationships where the man has multiple partners. However, with modern polyamory any combination of genders and orientations fulfills the definition. It is not necessary for all parties in a polyamorous relationship to be involved each with the other. Gay During the 1800s and early 1900s, ‘gay’ was simply a state of jubilant happiness. However, during the late 1800s gay was sometimes used to describe prostitutes in much the same way that the phrase ‘happy hookers’ is used today. One theory is that gay came into use to describe homosexual men because of the rise in numbers of male prostitutes during the 1900s. Another theory is that ‘gay’ was